Japanese Writing Systems

The Japanese language has three writing systems. There are two syllabic alphabets collectively referred to as kana. Syllabic means that each symbol in these alphabets stands for a syllable rather than just a letter. In Japanese, vowels are considered syllables, so one symbol can stand for one vowel. The only other exception to this rule is the consonant “n” which can also stand alone. The third writing system, called kanji, consists of thousands of symbols that stand for entire words, ideas, or concepts.

Each of the three writing systems can be transliterated into Roman characters. This is called “Romanization” of the Japanese text. “Romaji” is the noun that refers to Japanese text written in Roman letters. Romaji is not used by native Japanese, but it is an effective tool for beginners. Those who speak European languages as their first language find it much easier to begin learning Japanese when the symbols are written in romaji.

The two alphabets that make up kana are hiragana and katakana. Each of these alphabets has its own purpose in the Japanese language and both are made up of forty-six basic symbols. Some of these symbols can be altered slightly or combined with other symbols in order to create other sounds. Once the basic symbols are learned, the alterations are extremely simple.

Hiragana is used to write particles, verb endings, and some words in Japanese. Anything that can be written with kanji can be written with hiragana. Hiragana is the writing system most elementary and intermediate Japanese students use. Below is a chart that depicts the forty-six main hiragana characters. The chart reads vertically and from right to left, just like traditional Japanese script.

   

ん	わ	ら	や	ま	は	な	た	さ	か	あ
		り		み	ひ	に	ち	し	き	い
		る	ゆ	む	ふ	ぬ	つ	す	く	う
		れ		め	へ	ね	て	せ	け	え
	を	ろ	よ	も	ほ	の	と	そ	こ	お

Katakana is the alphabet that is used for loan words and foreign names. Japanese consists of many loan words from other languages. The majority of these words come from English. All foreign loan words are written with this alphabet and cannot be written in kanji. Katakana works exactly like hiragana does; each symbol in hiragana has a counterpart in katakana. The chart below shows the basic katakana symbols.

ン	ワ	ラ	ヤ	マ	ハ	ナ	タ	サ	カ	ア
		リ		ミ	ヒ	ニ	チ	シ	キ	イ
		ル	ユ	ム	フ	ヌ	ツ	ス	ク	ウ
		レ		メ	ヘ	ネ	テ	セ	ケ	エ
	ヲ	ロ	ヨ	モ	ホ	ノ	ト	ソ	コ	オ

Kanji is the most complicated writing system in Japanese. There are over 50,000 kanji symbols, but only 2,000-3,000 of them are considered “everyday” kanji. This means that the majority of kanji are not used in everyday life, so one can get by in Japan without them. Each kanji symbol stands for a complete word, idea, or concept. Many kanji symbols are more complicated to write than the characters in either of the two alphabets.

 

The Japanese writing systems are much different than those of European languages. Most European languages, such as English, Italian, French, and German, do not possess symbols or character systems like Japanese. European languages tend to use one alphabet and Roman characters; this makes learning to write a European language much easier than learning to write Japanese. European languages are not syllabic languages, so this is a huge difference from Japanese. Native speakers of European languages have a harder time getting used to the Japanese writing systems than other European ones.

Although the Japanese writing system may seem very difficult and complex, it can be mastered. Hiragana and katakana can be learned quickly and kanji can be mastered with years of practice. Remember, native Japanese spend their elementary, middle, and high school years learning kanji just as we spend years learning proper English.


Article was written by Courtney Lazore.

On Writing Good Chinese

Despite the great differences between English and Chinese, William Zinsser’s article “Writing English as a Second Language” http://www.theamericanscholar.org/writing-english-as-a-second-language/ turns out to be equally useful for improving Chinese writing. Writing good Chinese requires, in particular, the principles of simplicity and brevity. While ancient literates were following these rules of thumb for thousands of years, contemporary Chinese seem to forget them.

When I read the People’s Daily, my head often spins. The mouthpiece of the Chinese Government is full of articles with copious sentences. The editorial staff probably considers short sentences too simple to exert authority. One way to make any Chinese sentence longer (than necessary) is to use lots of nouns. Another trick is to convert verbs into nouns and write in the passive voice. This is exactly what Zinsser detests in English writing. It is no less catastrophic in Chinese writing. A reporter prefers “为了维持房价数据的稳定” (which can be directly translated as “in order to maintain the stability of the figures of the housing prices”) to “为了稳定房价” (which can be directly translated as “in order to stabilize the housing prices”). Worst of all, the journalists of the People’s Daily often squeeze all the information of who, what, when and where into one sentence. In Chinese writing, that means a long string of characters without any space. Reading a long sentence as such is like solving a puzzle.

Another problem with long sentences is that they sound neither rhythmic nor melodic. In ancient China, the most popular poetic forms contain either five or seven characters in each line. Most Chéngyǔ comes in four characters as well. Ancient Chinese literates have indeed showed us that less is better.

While Zinsser advises writers to get rid of all words not doing useful work, it is very easy to put in extra useless words in Chinese writing. Some Chinese characters do not denote any “thing” or “concept”. They are used to link words, phrase a sentence, indicate tense or simply to make a sentence sound better. The character “的” is a typically interesting example. “的” is often used to indicate possession. It can also form part of an adjective or adverb. “的” is so versatile that it is often overused. Ancient Chinese writers did not have the same problem with “的”. It is a modern Chinese character and never appears in classical texts. If ancient Chinese could produce a whole article or poem without using a single “的”, I reckon that we can all learn to be less generous in using it.

Zinsser stresses that writing is learned by imitation. I cannot agree more. We have to be careful when choosing our models though. Reading Tang poems clearly serves us better than reading the People’s Daily. 

Valeria Teo is the author of this article.

The Many Versions of Spoken “Chinese”

People often ask me how to say certain phrases or words in Chinese. My immediate response is always a question back to them: in Cantonese or in Mandarin? I can tell from their reaction that they are totally unprepared for this. For them, the language of Chinese probably denotes only Mandarin (or Putonghua as it is known in mainland China). Most Chinese people are, however, growing up with at least two different versions of spoken “Chinese”.

While Mandarin has become the national language of the country since 1909, it has never replaced local dialects. People coming from the same village, town or county always speak with each other in their own dialect even though they are able to converse in Mandarin. The local dialect, instead of Mandarin, is the true mother tongue. The same goes for the biggest cities in China including Shanghai and Guangzhou. In fact, people often find it (more) useful to learn Shanghai dialect and Cantonese when living in Shanghai and Guangzhou respectively.

The situation in Beijing is more interesting. Beijing dialect may sound similar to but is actually different from Mandarin. While native Beijing people can understand Mandarin, Mandarin speakers from other parts of China may not grasp all the local conversations. A switch to the local dialect is hence more subtle: it happens when a phrase or certain wording is totally incomprehensible to an ordinary albeit native Mandarin speaker.

For a melting pot like Hong Kong, the dialectic situation is even more complicated. Being the official language of the territory, Cantonese is used for daily conversation at school and work. It is not necessarily the dialect first learnt or used at home. People with different dialectic traditions have come to reside in Hong Kong although it is increasingly difficult to keep their home dialects. Shanghai, Hakka, Chaozhou and Fujian people are some notable examples.

With one parent speaking Min Nan dialect (a dialect used in southern Fujian and Taiwan), Mandarin and Cantonese and another parent speaking Cantonese, Mandarin and Hainanese (a dialect used in the province of Hainan), I have actually lost the chance to learn all dialects. My parents are unable to communicate with each other in their respective home dialects. We go for the mainstream and use primarily Cantonese at home. Mandarin acts as an auxiliary. Although I hear dialogues in Min Nan dialect or Hainanese at times, they are all Greek to me.

If both parents happen to speak the same home dialects, their children usually understand the dialects well although most of them seldom speak in their true mother tongues. Cantonese will sooner or later become the only dialect used even among family members.

The importance of Mandarin has risen since Hong Kong was bound to become a special administrative region of China. Hong Kong people are used to speaking in both Cantonese and Mandarin for more than twenty years. Spoken “Chinese” is seldom thought of as a single language. Although the situation is theoretically true for all parts of China, I believe that Hong Kong people feel it strongest. Even the Hong Kong Government promotes the so-called “bi-literacy (Chinese and English) and tri-lingualism (Cantonese, Mandarin and English)” in its educational policies. My question “In Cantonese or in Mandarin?” is probably a reflection of this sentiment.

Valeria Teo is the author of this article and is a contracted writer for a Chinese dictionary online.

My Dream Destinations in China

With 40 sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List, China offers visitors cultural diversity and scenic variety. Planning a trip to China can be quite a daunting task. Beijing and her neighboring areas in Hebei Province lie in the heart of the whole Chinese civilization. Anyone visiting China should not miss what the ancient capital has to offer: the prehistoric Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian (42 km southwest of Beijing); Yin Xu (about 500 km south of Beijing) and the Great Wall of the ancient period; the Beihai Park of the Liao Dynasty; the Xiangshan Park of the Jin Dynasty; the hutong (narrow streets or alleys) and siheyuan (courtyards) of the Yuan Dynasty; the Temple of Heaven, the Summer Palace, the Imperial Garden, the Imperial Palaces (the Forbidden City), the Mountain Resort and its Outlying Temples of Chengde and the Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. For me, there are five other dream destinations in China: Tibet, the Silk Road, Jiagnan Region, Sichuan Province and Yunnan Province.

With her unique culture, terrains, climate, fauna and flora, Tibet remains a mystery despite my visit in 2010. Altitude sickness does not deter people from visiting Tibet. Tickets for the Qinghai-Tibet Train are always in great demand. The world’s highest rail track in fact heightens the interests in Lhasa, Linzhi, Yarlung Valley, Tsangpo, Yomdrok Lake, Tsedang, Shigatse, Namsto and the Tibetan Plateau.

I hope to realize my dream trip on the Silk Road in 2011. The ancient trade route passes through many famous cities, historic places, Buddhist monuments and ancient ruins like Xian, Lanzhou, Xiahe, Kashgar, Hami City, Lop Nor, Turpan and Dunhuang among others. I certainly will not miss the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in Xian and Mogao Caves in Dunhuang.

Jiagnan Region attracted imperial visits for thousands of years. “Jiagnan” (literally means “south of the Yangtze River”) refers to the provinces in the middle and lower stream south of the longest river in China. Including the famous cities like Shanghai, Hangzhou, Suzhou and Nanjing, Jiagnan Region has always been the paradise for vacationers. The scenic gardens, water villages and picturesque mountains have been portrayed in thousands of Chinese poems and paintings. I am yet to visit all the historic attractions in this romantic region. The classical Gardens of Suzhou, Mount Huangshan, Lushan, Mount Sanqingshan, Moganshan, the Ancient Villages of Xidi and Hongcun as well as the West Lake in Hangzhou are only few of the most well-known examples.

Sichuan always appeals to me simply because she is the home of the lovely giant panda. Jiuzhaigou Valley and Huanglong are sufficient to make Sichuan the most beautiful provinces in China. The ancient land is also full of mystery. Archeological sites at Sanxingdui and Jinsha, monuments like the Leshan Giant Buddha, the Dazu Rock Carvings and the Dujiangyan Irrigation System keep me wonder how ancient people achieved the seemingly impossible feats.

The colorful cultures of the minority groups, the karst terrain and the Ancient Tea Road arouse my interests in Yunnan. The old town of Lijiang, the neighboring Jade Dragon Snow Mountain, the Laojunshan and the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas highlight her unique landscape. The Ancient Tea Road, also known as the Southern Silk Road, challenges travelers in search of the most beautiful and yet dangerous gorges, cliffs and mountainous trails in Yunnan.

Billions of people living across China for hundreds of thousands of years have created, nurtured and discovered the gems on the UNESCO World Heritage List. But the journeys across China certainly go beyond that list.

Valeria Teo is a contracted writer for the Chinese dictionary.

Su Shi in the Paradise on Earth

Marco Polo, the first Westerner to set foot in Hangzhou at the end of the 13th century during the Yuan Dynasty, described her as “the finest and most splendid city in the world”. Hangzhou had prospered as the ancient capital of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) before the Mongolian army took over the city. In fact, Chinese have long regarded the city of Suzhou and Hangzhou as the paradise on earth. The history of both cities dates back to more than 2,000 years ago. Suzhou is famous for her numerous Chinese gardens whereas Hangzhou is renowned for her natural beauty around West Lake. What attracted me to Hangzhou was Su Shi, my favorite poet and Hangzhou governor in the 11th century during the Northern Song Dynasty.

Nobody can miss Su Shi’s presence in Hangzhou, especially right across West Lake. Su Shi turned the silt of the lake into a causeway 2.8 km long. People of Hangzhou have named it Suti, meaning Su Causeway, in memory of his many contributions in Hangzhou. The city of Hangzhou did not forget Su Shi 900 years later. In December 1988, a memorial hall was open on the south end of the causeway. A statue of Su Shi, three meters in height, stands right in front of the main hall.

Peach trees, Yulan magnolia, cherry trees, Cottonrose Hibiscus, olive trees and willows line both sides of the causeway. When I was walking on Suti in mid March, spring was slowly returning to West Lake although it was still too early for a full blossom. The lake would get a little misty sometimes because of the drizzle. In Su Shi’s eyes, West Lake in mist and rain was as much a wonder as the shimmering waters in bright sunshine. Su Shi likened West Lake to Xi Shi, one of the famed Four Beauties of ancient China, in his famous poem. I realized that the poetic beauty of West Lake was hardly the poet’s imagination. The mist and drizzle even added a few romantic touches to the lake.

Su Shi’s literary gift, sense of humor and charismatic character left behind a rich legacy of poems, lyrics, essays and tales to the people of Hangzhou. He is remembered at the dining table as well. Su Shi, also known as Su Dongpo, created the famous Hangzhou dish bearing his name as the story goes. Louwailou Restaurant (楼外楼) is the best place at West Lake to taste Dongpo’s pork and authentic Hangzhou cuisine. The restaurant, founded in 1848 during the Qing Dynasty, has received many Chinese politicians, writers and celebrities over the years. The founder of the Republic of China Sun Yat-sen and his wife, Soong Ch'ing-ling, the late Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai, the novelist Lu Xun, the poet Yu Dafu and the cartoonist Feng Zikai were some noted guests at Louwailou.

Hangzhou is not merely a touristic city with impressive scenery. For me, the beauty of the paradise on earth is incomplete without her long history and rich culture.

Valeria Teo is a contracted writer for an Chinese dictionary.

Museums To See in Moscow

Although most visitors don’t need any extra incentives to tour Moscow, the capital’s amazing array of museums is an undeniable attraction. The collections housed in Moscow are unlike any other, with rich history coming to life through interactive exhibits and stunning art collections. Whether you’re looking for a guided tour through Russian history or an exhaustive anthropological survey of the country, you can find contentment at Moscow’s many museums.

State Tretyakov Gallery: The gallery’s history alone is impressive, as this museum began out of Pavel Tretyakov’s personal art collection in 1856. Since then, the museum has acquired more than 130,000 stunning exhibits and is considered to be the greatest collection of Russian art in the world. With both contemporary and traditional pieces, this gallery is not to be missed.

State Historical Museum: Nestled between Red Square and Manege Square in Moscow, the State Historical Museum is impressive before you even enter. Founded in 1872, the State Historical Museum has had ample time to amass one of the most impressive collections of antiquities in the world. The artifacts range from the present day all the way to the Paleolithic period, with paintings and exhibits complemented by guide books and videos.

Pushkin Museum: The Pushkin is the largest collection of European art in Moscow, which makes it a top museum in a city full of top museums – a truly distinguished title. The Pushkin Museum is housed in a stunning architectural marvel of a facility, but even that doesn’t detract from the amazing collection, which features artists from across the world, including Van Gogh, Matisse, Picasso and many more. The Pushkin is simply unforgettable.

Zoological Museum of Moscow University: This museum is among the top ten largest zoological museums in the world, and you’ll want to explore every inch of it. Whether you’re a die-hard zoological fan or just have a passing interest in animals, the museum will entice you for hours, with extinct animals and a host of rotating exhibits to keep you coming back for more. From the largest animals to the smallest, the entire earth seems to be represented here.

Yuri Orlov Paleontological Museum: The oldest animals and plants come together under the roof of this expansive facility, and it is an experience to behold. With a full mammoth skeleton, dinosaurs, and a special hall dedicated to the unique paleontological history of Moscow, this museum has delighted millions of families and hardcore history buffs. Nearly 300 years of collections make up the Yuri Orlov museum, and it features some of the rarest species on earth as a result.

Brian Willett is a professional writer for the Russian dictionary.